Timeline in Hawaiian History...1977 - 2005

1976 – The Hōkūleʻa , a replica of an ancient voyaging double-hulled canoe sails from Hawai‘i on May 1 and reaches Tahiti on June 4. The voyage is symbolic to the Hawaiian cultural movement.
• The University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa establishes B.A. programs in Hawaiian language and Hawaiian Studies to meet the growing student demand for these programs.

1977 – ‘Ahahui ‘ōlelo Hawai‘i, a non-profit organization dedicated to the perpetuation of the Hawaiian language is incorporated. Headed by Dorothy Kahananui, it provides Hawaiian language classes for adults, publications, resource persons, and workshops. A similar organization, Hui Ho‘oulu ‘ōlelo Hawai‘i is founded in Hilo by Edith Kanaka‘ole, a leader in the revitalization of traditional Hawaiian hula. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1978 – Hawai‘i celebrates the bicentennial of the arrival of Captain James Cook.
• The Hōkūle‘a capsizes in rough seas 20 miles off Moloka‘i; 15 of the crew are rescued. Eddie Aikau (1946 – 1978), 31, went in search of help on a surfboard, is lost at sea.
• Hawai‘i's Judi Andersen is crowned Miss USA.
• Governor Ariyoshi wins re-election; Jean King is the state's first woman lieutenant governor.
• John Waihe‘e, president of the Constitutional Convention, submits two provisions for the State Constitution: that the Hawaiian language be accorded the status of official language along with English; and that the study of Hawaiian be accorded special promotion by the State. Both provisions are passed. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1979 – Hawai‘i attracts four million visitors that year.

1982 – Eileen R. Anderson becomes the state's first woman mayor, defeating Frank F. Fasi for the office of mayor of Honolulu.
• Hurricane ‘Iwa strikes Kaua‘i, causing an estimated $234 million in damage.
• University of Hawai‘i at Hilo initiates a Hawaiian Studies degree program taught through Hawaiian. The focus of the degree is traditional Hawaiian language and culture, especially performing arts, to complement the focus of the Mānoa campus B.A. on Hawaiian history and politics. This is the first time that Hawaiian has been used as a medium of government funded education since 1895. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1983 – Kilauea volcano erupts at Napau crater, with lava flow stretching four miles, rolling through two houses and countess acres of forest land above Kalapana.
• Hawaiian language teachers Ilei Beniamina, Hōkūlani Cleeland, Kauanoe Kamanā, Larry Kimura, No‘eau Warner, Koki Williams, and Pila Wilson meet on Kaua‘i to discuss dismal state of Hawaiian language. They form a grassroots organization, ‘Aha Pūnana Leo, Inc., “The Language Nest Corporation”. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1984 – Frank Fasi elected mayor of Honolulu once again, defeating Eileen Anderson.
• The 25th anniversary of statehood.
• The first Pūnana Leo preschool opens in Kekaha, Kaua‘i, funded by Alu Like. Books and teaching materials must be created or translated into Hawaiian from English. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1985 – The 100th anniversary of Japanese immigration to Hawai‘i.
• Pūnana Leo ‘O Honolulu opens in Kalihi and Pūnana Leo ‘O Hilo opens. The method of teaching is entirely in Hawaiian with no English, and becomes established in all Pūnana Leo schools. Inadequate funding results in strong parent participation via in-kind service. This develops into the hana makua or “parent participation” component. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1986 – Astronaut Ellison Onizuka (1946 – 1986), 39, is killed in the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger.
• John Waihe‘e is elected governor, the first elected state governor of Hawaiian ancestry.
• Pūnana Leo graduates enter kindergarten in public school and are assigned to the SLEP (Student with Limited English Proficiency) program for immigrants. Hilo parents refuse to send their children and instead, teach kindergarten in Hawaiian at Pūnana Leo ‘o Hilo, now referred to as Kula Kaiapuni Hawai‘i “Hawaiian environment school.” ‘Aha Pūnana Leo decides to reestablish public education through Hawaiian rather than creating more preschools. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1987 – The first elementary indigenous language immersion classes in the United States officially begin at Keaukaha Elementary in Hilo and Waiau Elementary in Pearl City. Pūnana Leo ‘O Maui opens. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1988 – Frank Fasi is re-elected mayor of Honolulu.
• With a F.I.P.S.E. grant from the federal government to ‘Aha Pūnana Leo president Larry Kimura, teacher training begins for the immersion program. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)
• The passing of Native Hawaiian Education Act (NHEA) draws attention to the high literacy rates of Hawaiians at the time of annexation and the sharp drop in literacy during the period of American control. NHEA serves to help restore the linguistic integrity and educational excellence that were lost to Native Hawaiians when federal government policy denied Native Hawaiians the right to a public education through the medium of Hawaiian language and culture. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1989 – The 100th anniversary of Father Damien’s death.

• 1990 – 2000 – The Office of Hawaiian Affairs, Department of Hawaiian Homelands, and the Kamehameha Schools are accused of violating racial discrimination laws in providing services only to those who can demonstrate Native Hawaiian ancestry. These suits endanger the resource base of the Native Hawaiian people, and block further public support for federal recognition of Hawaiians as a unique indigenous people of the United States. The claim of indigenous status highlights the importance of strengthening of the Hawaiian language and culture. (www.ahapunanaleo.org)

1990 – U.S. Senator Spark Matsunaga (1916 – 1990) 73, dies on April 15.
• John Waihe‘e is reelected governor.
• Kalapana Mauna Kea Congregational Church is destroyed by lava from Kilauea volcano.
• A statue of Duke Kahanamoku is erected at Kuhio Beach in Waikiki.

1991 – Miss Hawai‘i Carolyn Sapp becomes Miss America.

1992 – Hurricane Iniki causes massive devastation on Kaua‘i.
• Dole Foods Co. closes down Lanai Plantation.
• Voyaging canoe Hokule‘a returns from a 5,500-mile voyage, including a first-time voyage to Rarotonga.
• The 100th anniversary of the founding of the Hawaiian Historical Society.
• Frank Fasi elected to a fifth term as mayor of Honolulu.

1993 – The 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Hawaiian kingdom.
• The Rev. Paul Sherry, president of the United Church of Christ of the United States, formally apologizes to Native Hawaiians for the church’s role in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy.
• The U.S. Senate apologizes to Hawaiians for the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian kingdom in 1893.
• President Bill Clinton signs a Congressional Resolution acknowledging the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian kingdom in 1893.
• The remains of Henry Opukaha‘ia, the first Hawaiian to convert to Christianity, are returned to Hawai‘i from Connecticut and reburied in Kahikolu Cemetery in Napo‘opo‘o.
• A statue of Robert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox is unveiled in Wilcox Park in Downtown Honolulu.

1994 – First regularly scheduled Hawaiian-language news broadcast presented on public radio.
• The island of Kaho‘olawe is officially transferred by the federal government to the state of Hawai‘i.
• Hamakua Sugar Company closes.
• Benjamin Cayetano is elected the fifth governor of Hawai‘i, and serves until 2002. He is the first Filipino American to serve as a state governor in the United States.

1995 – Voyaging canoes Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa complete a 21-day trip from Hawai‘i to Tahiti.
• After 98 years, the O‘ahu Sugar Company grinds its last cane at its Waipahu sugar mill.
• Songwriter R. Alex Anderson, 100, known writing "Lovely Hula Hands" and "Mele Kalikimaka," dies.

1997 – Brook Mahealani Lee of Pearl City is crowned Miss Universe.
• June 26 – Israel "IZ" Ka‘ano‘i Kamakawiwo‘ole (1959 – 1997), 38, dies.

1999 – After 57 years, the Navy closes Barbers Point Naval Air Station.

2004 – The University of Hawai‘i Board of Regents approves UH-Hilo's first doctoral program, Ka Haka ‘Ula O Ke‘elikōlani's PhD. in Indigenous Language and Cultural Revitalization.

2005 – The University of Hawai‘i Board of Regents approves the offering of an M.A. in Hawaiian and an M.A. in Hawaiian Studies at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa.

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1950 - 1975

1950 – In an effort to obtain statehood, a Hawai‘i Constitutional Convention convenes; the resulting constitution is later ratified by voters.
• The U.S. House Committee on Un-American Activities convenes in ‘Iolani Palace to conduct hearings on Communist influence in Hawai‘i's labor organizations.

1952 – The first regular television programming in Hawai‘i begins on KGMB-TV.

1953 – Samuel Wilder King (1886-1959) is named governor of the Territory of Hawai'i; he is the first part-Hawaiian governor of the Islands.

1954 – Japan Airlines inaugurates service between Tokyo and Honolulu.
• Joseph R. Farrington (1897 – 1954), 56, Hawai‘i delegate to Congress and leader of the statehood movement, dies in Washington, D.C.

1957 – Color television is first seen in Hawai‘i.
• The Nu‘uanu Pali bridge and tunnel opens to traffic.
• Tūtū Mary Kawena Puku‘i co-authors the Hawaiian-English Dictionary (1957) with Samuel H. Elbert.

1958 – James Drummond Dole (1877–1958), 80, founder of Hawai‘i's pineapple industry, dies.
• Tūtū Mary Kawena Puku‘i co-authors The Polynesian family system in Ka‘u, Hawai‘i (1958) with Dr. E. S. Handy.

1959 – Alaska is officially proclaimed the Forty-ninth State on January 3.
• Statehood for Hawai‘i is approved by the U.S. Senate on March 11 and by the House on March 12. An act signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower designating Hawai‘i the fiftieth state becomes law on March 18.
• Ground is broken for a new $24 million Honolulu airport.
• March 24 – Samuel Wilder King (1886-1959), 72, former governor of Hawai‘i and delegate to Congress, dies.
• The first general election after statehood takes place on July 28, and William F. Quinn, a Republican, becomes Hawai‘i's first state governor. The third Friday in August is designated Admission Day.

1960 – The fiftieth star is added to the U.S. flag on July 4.

1961 – Haleakalā National Park is dedicated.
• The Pali tunnel officially open to two-way traffic.

1962 – John A. Burns (1909 – 1975) is elected the state's second governor in the November elections. He serves as the second Governor of Hawai'i from 1962 to 1974.

1965 – Bus service begins between Honolulu and Kailua.
• Camilla “Cami” Grace Fusae Ka ‘iuhono ‘onalani Wengler Vignoe is the second daughter born to Harry and Charlotte Wengler.

1966 – William Shaw Richardson (1919 – 2010) becomes the first part-Hawaiian chief justice of the state Supreme Court.
• Tūtū Mary Kawena Puku‘i co-authors Place Names of Hawai‘i (1966) with Samuel H. Elbert and Esther Mo‘okini.

1967 – The State Statuary Hall Commission chooses Marisol Escobar's seven-foot bronze statue of Father Damien for National Statuary Hall in Washington, D.C.
• Hawai‘i attracts one million tourists in a single year.

1968 – Duke Kahanamoku (1890 – 1968), 77, dies.
• Hawaii Five-0 has its world premiere; it becomes a CBS series for the 1968-1969 television season.
• Neighbor Island counties elect their first mayors.
• Frank F. Fasi (1920 – 2010) is elected mayor of Honolulu; Fasi serves six terms – 22 years – as mayor of Honolulu.

1969 – The new Fort Street Mall is dedicated in downtown Honolulu.
• The first astronauts to visit the moon return to earth and are picked up at sea along with their Apollo 11 craft, by the U.S.S. Hornet, which arrives at Pearl Harbor, July 26. The men are taken to Hickam Air Force Base and flown to the mainland.

1971 – The $62 million Sheraton Waikiki opens.

1972 – The Hawai‘i Legislature ratifies the Equal Rights Amendment within 45 minutes of its passage in Congress. Hawai‘i was the first state to ratify.
• The state of Hawai‘i attracts two million tourists.
• Tūtū Mary Kawena Puku‘i authors Nānā i ke Kumu: Look to the source volumes I and II (1972).

1973 – Tūtū Mary Kawena Puku‘i works with Alfons L. Korn to translate and edit The echo of our song: Chants and poems of the Hawaiians (1973).

1974 – George Ariyoshi, the country's first governor of Japanese ancestry, is elected.

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1925 - 1949

1926 – The cornerstone for St. Francis Hospital is laid.
• Bishop Estate announces plans for a $2.5 million Kamehameha Schools campus.
• June 9 – Sanford B. Dole (1844 – 1946), 82, first president of the Republic of Hawai‘i and first governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i, dies.

1927 – The Royal Hawaiian Hotel, built at a cost of $4 million, opens.
• The John Rodgers Airport (now Honolulu International Airport) is dedicated.
• The first successful nonstop air flight from the mainland, Oakland to Hawai‘i is flown.

1928 – First chain grocery store in Hawai‘i, Oakland-based Piggly Wiggly, opens in Honolulu.
• May 1 is designated Lei Day in Hawai‘i.
• Mary Kawena Puku‘i, 33, begins translating Hawaiian writings into English at the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. From then on, she works actively at passing on her knowledge, sometimes in collaborations with others (Bishop Museum Archives, 2010).

1931 – Kapi‘olani Boulevard from Ward to Sheridan is opened to traffic.

1932 – Princess Elizabeth Kalaniana'ole (1879 – 1932), 52, dies. Wife of Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana‘ole, she was the former President of the Native Sons and Daughters of Hawai‘i and the Ka‘ahumanu Society, and Regent of Hui Kalama.

1934 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the first U.S. president to visit Hawai‘i arrives.

1935 – May 1 - Harry A. Wengler, father of Camilla Grace Fusae Kaiu‘hono‘onalani Wengler Vignoe is born in Fredericktown, MO.

1936 – The first traffic light in Honolulu is installed at Nu‘uanu Avenue and Beretania Street.

1937 – August 5 – Charlotte Patrice Kalāmanamana Ukishima Wengler (1937 – 2010), mother of Camilla Grace Fusae Kaiu‘hono‘onalani Wengler Vignoe is born in Honolulu, HI.
• The Kodak Hula Show officially begins.

1938 – 18 U.S. Navy bombers land at Pearl Harbor in the greatest mass flight in aviation history.

1941 – The new naval air station at Kane‘ohe Bay is commissioned.
• December 7 - Japanese planes attack the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor. The U.S.S. Arizona and other ships are sunk. More than 2,500 lives are lost.
1942 – The government begins issuing gas masks to civilians in Hawai'i.
• A ban on liquor sales that had been in effect since December 7, 1941, is lifted.
• March 4 - A Japanese plane drops 4 bombs on the slopes of Tantalus at about 2:15 a.m.
• Sears, Roebuck & Co. opens its new store on Beretania Street.

1944 – The Democratic National Convention endorses statehood for Hawai‘i.

1945 – Prince David Kawananakoa (1868 – 1908), 40, dies.
• Residents celebrate their first curfew-free evening since December 7, 1941, on July 7.

1948 – President Harry S. Truman endorses statehood for Hawai‘i during his report to Congress.

What can we do?

While learning about the culture and language of Hawai'i, it difficult, if not impossible for a student to ignore the impact of historical events. Outside influences over the last 230 some-odd years have irreversibly changed the course of life for the Hawaiian people forever. Whole books and volumes have been written about Western invasion and colonization and its impact on indigenous peoples all over the world. Some peoples and their cultures fell victim to racial genocide and were completely wiped off the face of the earth, while others such as the native Guamanians, have lost their native culture and language forever. In any case, the harm that was done is irreversible. What can we do?

Quite by accident, I discovered a book called Ancient Hawaiian Civilization, edited by Kenneth Emory (1999). The story behind this book is that a group of educated persons associated with the Bishop Museum were invited to give a lecture series on Ancient Hawaiian Civilization at the Kamehameha Schools in the early 1930s. The lecturers were educators, archeologists, researchers, Hawaiian elders, scholars and scientists, and they spoke on a wide range of subjects including the arts, migration, astronomy, navigation, land use, religion, agriculture, warfare, plants and language, among other topics. These lectures were collected and transcribed, and published in 1933, in the first edition of Ancient Hawaiian Civilization. Since then, the publication has been reprinted twice due to updates in scholarship and research in certain areas.

The spirit of this publication…was an important and refreshing departure from the forced English assimilation which had become the "highest standard" within the public school system. The authors send out the message loud and strong that the young generations of Hawaiians had a responsibility to perpetuate the culture of the ancient people, to carry the torch as future “keepers of the culture”.

“There ought always be among you of Hawaiian blood, some persons conversant with the great traditions of Hawai’i,” the authors wrote, “and some of you able to speak the language perfectly. There ought always to be some of you who can chant the glorification chants, the ceremonial chants, the chants of the hula in the very same voice that stirred your ancestors and is capable of moving the total stranger to an appreciation of the mystery and beauty of these utterances…above all, there should be some to carry into modern life the fine things of the past.” (Grant, G., in Emory, 1999, p. 8)

I agree. This is what we can do: learn from our mistakes, and from history. We can take the time to learn about our ancestry, about genealogy, and honor our kupuna(ancestors). We can learn our native language by taking classes, by choosing to speak and write the words whenever possible. We can think about the composer's meaning of the words behind a song, or embody the words with emotion when we dance the hula. Words are powerful. They can hurt or heal. We must choose our words carefully.

We can develop a loving relationship of care with our ‘aina (land), and live mindfully each day, with every action. We can choose to live with the values of Aloha that were gifted to us by our ancestors. We can ask for help from our kupuna and our 'aumakua when we need it and be open to receive it when help arrives...in whatever form it comes. We can give thanks by having deep, sincere gratitude in our hearts for what has been gifted to us. We can take care of our land, our families, which include parents, grandparents, and keiki (children), our communities, each other. We can take care of our bodies by selecting wholesome nourishment, adequate sleep and exercise, and our minds by practicing clean living, choosing positive attitude and mindfulness. Above all, we can choose excellence in all that we do.

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1900 - 1924 AD

1900 – President McKinley signs the Organic Act on April 30, making Hawai‘i a territory of the United States.
• The U.S. Senate confirms the appointment of Sanford B. Dole as governor of Hawai‘i.
• The first wireless telegraph messages are sent in Hawai‘i.

1901 – The Territory of Hawai‘i's first legislature is convened in Honolulu.

1902 – The cable ship Silverton links the telegraph cable from San Francisco to Sans Souci beach at Waikīkī December 28, and the first message to be telegraphed from Hawai‘i to the U.S. mainland is sent January 1.

1903 – The first Koreans arrive to work on the sugar plantations.
• March 10 – Prince Albert Kunuiakea, 49, the last of the Kamehameha heirs to Hawai‘i’s throne dies.
• The Honolulu Symphony Orchestra performs its first concert.
• The Order of Kamehameha is founded.

1904 – The Waikīkī Aquarium opens; it is the third oldest aquarium in the United States.

1905 – to 1907, Queen Lili’uokalani entered claims against the U.S. totaling $450,000 for property and other losses, claiming personal ownership of the crown lands, but was unsuccessful. The territorial legislature of Hawaii finally voted Lili’uokalani an annual pension of $4,000 and permitted her to receive the income from a sugar plantation of 6,000 acres (24 km²), which was the private property of her late brother before his election as king.
• Gas for household fuel is manufactured in Honolulu for the first time.
• The first-ever O‘ahu county election is held, choosing, among others, a sheriff, county clerk, county auditor, county attorney, and county treasurer.
• Honolulu's new immigration station, built at Kaka‘ako, is dedicated.

1907 – January 9 - Mauna Loa erupts, sending lava toward Kona.
• The Oahu Country Club formally opens.
• Fort Shafter, headquarters for the army, becomes the 1st permanent military post in the territory.
• The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (today the University of Hawai‘i) begins with twelve faculty members and five students.

1908 – The cornerstone for McKinley High School is laid.
• The U.S. House passes a bill providing for the creation of a naval base at Pearl Harbor at a cost of $2 million; U.S. Congress approves $3.1 million for the naval station.
• June 2 - Prince David Kawananakoa Piʻikoi (1868–1908), 40, heir presumptive to the throne of Hawai‘i dies.

1909 – The City and County of Honolulu is inaugurated with J. J. Fern as its first mayor.
• Schofield Barracks is established.

1910 – Liliuokalani brought an unsuccessful lawsuit against the United States seeking compensation under the Fifth Amendment for the loss of the Hawaiian crown land.

1911 – The first Chinese public school in Hawai‘i, the Mun Lun School, opens in Honolulu.
• Kaumakapili Church is dedicated.

1912 – Duke Kahanamoku (August 24, 1890-January 22, 1968) wins a gold medal in the 100-meter swim at the Olympic Games in Stockholm, Sweden.
• Former Queen Lili‘uokalani helps lay the cornerstone for the Lili‘uokalani School.
• The only ship in the Hawaiian navy, Kaimiloa, is beached at Pearl Harbor and burned.

1913 – The Library of Hawai‘i, the first public library in Hawai‘i, opens in downtown Honolulu.
• Duke Kahanamoku breaks world swimming records in 75-yard and 100-yard races.

1915 – A Congressional party tours Kilauea and favors creating a national park there.
• Charles Reed Bishop (1822–1915) 93, dies in San Francisco June 7.
• Kahuku is the relay point for the first wireless messages exchanged between Japan and the United States. The message originated in Tokyo and was sent to New York.

1916 – Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is signed into existence by President Woodrow Wilson.

1917 – Former Queen Lili‘uokalani (1838 – 1917), 79, dies at Washington Place November 11.
1918 – The first interisland flight is made, flying from O‘ahu to Moloka‘i and back.
• The Hawai‘i National Guard is mobilized to protect the Islands after most members of the regular army are dispatched to France.

1919 – The Pearl Harbor drydock is formally dedicated.

1920 – The Prince of Wales visits Honolulu.

1921 – President Harding signs the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act July 9.
• ‘Āinahau, the former home of Princess Likelike and her daughter, Princess Ka‘iulani, is destroyed by fire.

1922 – January 7 – Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalaniana‘ole, 50, last titular prince of the monarchy and a delegate to the U.S. Congress dies.
• KGU begins commercial radio service in Hawai‘i May 11.
• Washington Place, former home of Queen Liliuokalani, opens as the official residence of Hawai‘i's governors.

1923 – Hawai’i's legislature passes a "Bill of Rights", asking Congress for higher appropriations of federal funds on grounds that Hawai’i, while not a state, is still an integral part of the country.

1924 – The U.S. Congress passes Hawaii's "Bill of Rights."

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1875 - 1899 AD

1876 – The U.S. Senate ratifies the Reciprocity Treaty on August 15, allowing sugar and other products to enter the United States from Hawai‘i without customs duties.

1877 – Prince Leleiohoku, 23, heir to the throne, dies. Princess Lili‘uokalani is proclaimed heir.

By 1878 there were only 48,000 pure Hawaiians left alive (Noyes, 2003).

1878 – A charter is granted to C.H. Dickey and C.H. Wallace for the Hawaiian Telegraph Co.
• Portuguese contract laborers arrive from the Madeira Islands.

1879 – The first artesian wells are drilled by James Campbell on the ‘Ewa plain, providing irrigation for fields.
• The Kahului-Wailuku Railroad, running from Kahului to Pā‘ia, opens; it is the first common rail carrier in Hawai‘i.
• The cornerstone of ‘Iolani Palace is laid.

1880 – The Hawaiian Bell Telephone Company is incorporated.

1881 – An eruption of Mauna Loa in November threatens Hilo August 9. Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani asks the gods to spare the town and the lava flow stops.

1882 – The construction of ‘Iolani Palace is completed – at a cost of $350,000.

1883 – King Kalākaua and Queen Kapi‘olani, hold a coronation ceremony in front of ‘Iolani Palace to mark the ninth year of his reign.
• The statue of Kamehameha I is unveiled on February 14 in front of Ali‘iolani Hale.
• May 24 – Princess Ruth Ke‘elikolani, 57, dies. She was a great-granddaughter of Kamehameha I, a defender of native Hawaiian customs and traditions, and a major landholder in Hawai‘i. Most of her lands are gifted to Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop.
• Mother Marianne and the sisters of St. Francis arrive in Hawai‘i to care for those afflicted with Hansen‘s disease.

1884 – January 8 - Princess Kekaulike, 40, governess for the Big Island and sister of Queen Kapi‘olani, dies.
• October 16 – Bernice Pauahi Bishop, 53, Hawaiian philanthropist, great-granddaughter of Kamehameha I and wife of businessman Charles Reed Bishop, dies. She was the last surviving heir of the Kamehamehas. Her estate – Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estates – is the largest private landowner in the state of Hawai‘i, comprising 9% of Hawai’i’s total area. Revenues from these lands are used to operate the Kamehameha Schools, which were established in 1887 according to Princess Pauahi’s will.

1885 – April 25 – Dowager Queen Emma, 49, dies. She was married to Kamehameha VI, and together they had a son, Prince Albert Edward Kamehameha, who died at the age of four in 1862; her husband, Kamehameha VI died a year later. Queen Emma ran for ruling monarch against David Kalākaua but was defeated.

1886 – ‘Iolani Palace Square is illuminated by electric lights; two years later, electric street lighting replaces gas lamps in Honolulu.

1887 – King Kalākaua is forced by the Hawaiian League, a group favoring a more liberalized constitution, to sign the "bayonet constitution".

1888 – January 21 – Walter Murray Gibson, 66, former premier of the kingdom of Hawai'i, dies.
• Kaumakapili Church is dedicated.
• Hawaiian Tramways, Ltd., starts a mule-car service in Honolulu December 28. It is taken over in November 1900 by the Honolulu Rapid Transit & Land Company.

1889 – The yacht Casco arrives with Robert Louis Stevenson and family aboard.
• Robert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox leads a brief and unsuccessful revolt against the Reform Government. Seven rebels are killed and a dozen more are wounded.
• April 15 – Father Damien, 49, dies of leprosy.

1890 – King Kalākaua departs on the U.S.S. Charleston for San Francisco on November 25; less than two months later, on January 20, 1891 King Kalākaua, 54, dies in San Francisco; his body is brought back to Hawai‘i aboard the U.S.S. Charleston.

1891 – Lili‘uokalani is proclaimed queen on January 29.
• The funeral for Kalākaua is held at ‘Iolani Palace.
• Queen Lili‘uokalani names Princess Ka‘iulani her heir to the throne.
• Queen Lili‘uokalani visits the Hansen's disease settlement at Kalaupapa.

1892 – The Hawaiian Historical Society holds its first official meeting; Charles R. Bishop is chosen as the Society’s first president.

1893 – Queen Lili‘uokalani attempts to proclaim a new constitution, restoring to the throne powers that were deleted in the constitution of 1887.
• Queen Lili‘uokalani is deposed on January 17; a provisional government is established under Sanford B. Dole.
• The ‘Iolani Palace custodian turns over the crowns worn by King Kalakaua and Queen Kapi‘olani to the government. The jewels from the king's crown are discovered to be missing.

1894 – The Republic of Hawai‘i is established; Sanford B. Dole becomes president of the republic.

1895 – Robert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox fails in his attempt to lead a revolt to restore the monarchy.
• Queen Lili‘uokalani abdicates the throne and pledges allegiance to the republic.
• Mary Abigail Kawena ʻulaokalaniahiʻiakaikapoliopelekawahineʻaihonua Wiggin Puku‘i (1895–1986) is born in Ka‘ū, on the Big Island.

1898 – Spain declares war on the United States on April 24, and the U.S. Congress responds in kind on April 25. Troops are temporarily stationed at Camp McKinley near Diamond Head.
• The first motion picture filmed in Hawai‘i is shot by Edison photographers on their way through Honolulu.
• Theo. H. Davies, owner of Theo H. Davies & Co., one of the Big Five trading and agricultural companies in Hawai’i dies.
• President McKinley signs a joint resolution of Congress on July 7 that annexes Hawai‘i to the United States. Hawai‘i's sovereignty is transferred to the US on August 12.

1899 – March 6 - Princess Ka‘iulani, 23, dies. The new Princess Ka‘iulani School, reported to be the finest public school building in the Islands, opens soon thereafter.
• June 24 – Queen Kapi‘olani, 64, the granddaughter of Kaumuali‘i, the last king of Kaua‘i, dies.
• The first cars appear on the streets of Honolulu.
• A bubonic plague epidemic breaks out in Honolulu.

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1850 - 1874 AD

1850 – The Privy Council approves the first park in the Islands; it is named Thomas Square in honor of British Admiral Richard Thomas, who ended the five-month rule of Lord Paulet in 1843, restoring Hawaiian rule.
• The legislature authorizes a contract labor system to recruit foreign workers for Hawai‘i's plantations.
• The first shipment of ice arrives in Hawai‘i from Boston via San Francisco.
• The first permanent Mormon missionaries to Hawai‘i arrive.

1851 – The Honolulu Fire Department is established.
• February 1 – Kamehameha III signs a secret agreement that places the islands under the protection of the United States.

1852 – The first Chinese contract laborers arrive from aboard the Thetis.
• Kamehameha III proclaims a new constitution, replacing the original 1840 version.

1853 – A smallpox epidemic lasts eight months and takes 5,000–6,000 lives.

1854 – December 15 – Kamehameha III, 41, dies after reigning for almost 30 years, and is succeeded by Alexander Liholiho, Kamebameha IV.

1855 – June 13 –Abner Pākī, 47, prominent chief and father of Bernice Pauahi Bishop, dies.
• More contract laborers from Asia arrive to work on sugar plantations. A form of broken conversational Hawaiian called ‘ōlelo pa‘i‘ai which is now known as Pidgin is spoken on the plantations. This broken Hawaiian actually had begun as a means of communication with European sailors even before the missionaries arrived. Children of the Asian plantation immigrants learn to speak fluent Hawaiian from their indigenous peers. The Hawaiian Kingdom encourages intermarriage of contract laborers and their children with Hawaiians as a means to stem the rapid depopulation of Hawai‘i due to introduced diseases. ʻŌlelo pa‘i‘ai use increases toward the turn of the century as immigration grows to include many Portuguese, Japanese, and others. It also adopts more English terms as the English speaking minority exert increased political influence.

1856 – King Kamehameha IV marries Emma Rooke at Kawaiaha‘o Church.
• The Pacific Commercial Advertiser, first a weekly then a daily paper, begins publication.

1857 – William Little Lee, former chief justice of Hawai‘i, dies on May 28.
• A marine telegraph, a semaphore system erected at Diamond Head, sends signals to the downtown post office for the first time when a ship is sighted.
• Laura Kanaholo Konia, a granddaughter of Kamehameha I, wife of Abner Pākī dies July 2 at age fifty. Her heir is her daughter, Bernice Pauahi.

1858 – May 20 - Prince Albert Edward Kauikeaouli, son of King Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma.

1859 – On January 23, Mauna Loa erupts with a lava fountain reported as high as 500 feet.
• Gas lighting is introduced to Honolulu.

1860 – The cornerstone of Queen's Hospital is laid.
• The steamer Kilauea makes its first regular interisland run July 18.

1861 – Honolulu’s first opera is performed by a local group at the Royal Hawaiian Theatre.
• Walter Murray Gibson arrives; He plays a leading role in politics under King Kalākaua.
• The weekly newspaper Ka Hoku O Ka Pakipika (Star of the Pacific), debuts; it is the first Hawaiian-language newspaper published by native Hawaiians.

1863 – November 30 – Alexander Liholiho (Kamehameha IV), dies of asthma at age 29 and is succeeded by his older brother Lot Kamehameha who becomes Kamehameha V.
• Hale'ole publishes the first Hawaiian novel - Ke Ka‘ao ‘O Lā‘ieikawai (The Legend of Lā‘ieikawai).

1864 – Kamehameha V decrees a new constitution that is meant to strengthen his rule.

1865 – Lorrin Andrews (1795–1868), a missionary who opened Lahainaluna, the first post-secondary school for Hawaiians and prepares several works on the literature and antiquities of the Hawaiians and publishes the first Hawaiian/English Dictionary, which is based in part on an earlier manuscript monolingual Hawaiian dictionary by Lahainaluna aluminus Kamakau.

1866 – The first leprosy patients are taken to Moloka‘i’s Kalaupapa peninsula.
• Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain) arrives as a correspondent for a California newspaper.
• May 29 - Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, 28, a granddaughter of Kamehameha, dies after a lengthy illness.
• July 25 - Grace Kama‘iku‘i Rooke, 57, daughter of John Young and Ka‘o‘ana‘eha and adoptive mother of Emma Na‘ea, dies.
• The first daily newspaper, the Hawaiian Herald, begins publication.

1867 – The cornerstone of the Anglican cathedral, St. Andrew’s, is laid in Honolulu.

1868 – Mauna Loa erupts, causing severe tsunamis that destroy villages in Ka‘u, killing many.
• The first Japanese contract laborers arrive.
• November 24 – Kekūanaō‘a, 77, dies. He was the father of Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani, King Kamehameha IV, King Kamehameha V, and Princess Victoria Kamāmalu.

1870 – May 2 – John Papa I‘i, 69, dies. He was a chiefly Hawaiian intellectual, holding many positions of importance.
• September 20 – Queen Kalama, 53, widow of Kamehameha III dies. She is a descendant of the Moana family, which served the ali‘i nui of Hawai‘i Island from the time of Kalani‘ōpu‘u.
• Ice cream is sold commercially in Hawai‘i for the first time.

1871 – March 26 – Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana‘ole Pi‘ikoi is born at Kōloa, Kaua‘i. Elected in 1902, he served 20 years as Hawai‘i delegate to the U.S. Congress.
• A holiday in the memory of Kamehameha I is proclaimed June 11 by his grandson, Kamehameha V.

1872 – The cornerstone of Ali‘iolani Hale is laid.
• Henry Berger arrives from Germany to conduct the Royal Hawaiian Band; he holds this post for 43 years.
• An electric telegraph is in operation in downtown Honolulu.
• December 11 – Kamehameha V, 42, dies on his birthday.

1873 – William Lunalilo is elected king by the legislature after sweeping a popular vote.
• Father Damien is sent to Kalaupapa on Moloka‘i to work with the leprosy patients.

1874 – King Lunalilo, 40, dies of tuberculosis He reigned for only one year and 25 days.

• David Kalākaua is elected king by the legislature during a period of major economic growth. After the election, rioting takes place at the courthouse, led by disappointed supporters of the dowager Queen Emma. King Kalākaua and his party depart for San Francisco for a goodwill tour of the United States. (Hawaiian Historical Society, 2010) Kalākaua expands Hawai'i's international connections through a trip around the world, the first for any head of state. He also initiates a Hawaiian cultural revival that focuses on Hawaiian literature, dance, and music, all dependent on the Hawaiian language and strongly supported by the Hawaiian language press and schools. A new constitution forced on Kalākaua by gunboat diplomacy results in lower class Hawaiians and all non-European immigrants loosing the right to vote. Elected officials then act to further weaken the Hawaiian medium schools through attacks on the budgets of the public Hawaiian medium schools, including the salaries of their teachers. (‘Aha Punana Leo, 2006)
• A reciprocity treaty is signed, allowing sugar and other products to enter the United States without customs duties.
• October 16 – Princess Victoria Ka‘iulani, daughter of A.S. Cleghorn and Princess Miriam Likelike is born.

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1835 - 1849 AD

1835 – January 31 – William Lunalilo is born. He later reigns as king of Hawai‘i for thirteen months in 1873 and 1874.

By 1828 there were only 188,000 pure Hawaiians left alive (Noyes, 2003).

1836 – January 2 – Emma Na‘ea is born. She later becomes Queen Emma, wife of Kamehameha IV.
• Hawai‘i’s 1st English-language newspaper, the Sandwich Island Gazette, is published.
• Nov. 16 – King Kalākaua is born near the base of Punchbowl, O’ahu.
• A treaty is negotiated between Great Britain and the Sandwich Islands.
• December 30 – Nāhi‘ena‘ena, daughter of Keōpūolani and Kamehameha I, dies in Honolulu.

1837 – The first public streets are laid out in Honolulu.

1838 – September 2 – Lydia Kamaka‘eha, later Queen Lili‘uokalani, the last reigning monarch of Hawai‘i, is born.
• Ka Mo‘olelo Hawai‘i (The Hawaiian History) is produced written primarily by Lahainaluna alumni Malo, Kamakau, Moku, and Hale‘ole.

1839 – April 4 – Kina‘u (Elizabeth Kaho‘anoku Kina‘u), Kuhina Nui of Hawai‘i, dies.
• April 10 – Kaikio‘ewa, a companion of Kamehameha I and a governor of Kaua‘i dies.
• The first edition of the Hawaiian Bible is printed. By this time many Hawaiians have converted to Christianity, which is practiced through the Hawaiian language while maintaining knowledge of traditional Hawaiian religion; this becomes a defining feature of subsequent generations of Hawaiians. Later, full Hawaiian translations of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, Catholic missals, and the Book of Mormon are printed. (‘Aha Punanaleo, 2006)

1840 – Catholic missionaries and priests arrive in Honolulu and are allowed to stay and work.
• Kamehameha III proclaims the first constitution of Hawai‘i.
• The Polynesian a weekly newspaper is established in June and continues to publish until December 11, 1841.

• 1841 – The Hawaiian language community schools are united by the Monarchy as a separate government department of public education. The Department also includes Hawaiian medium boarding schools. These Hawaiian boarding schools and the larger day schools include teaching English as a second language. The Hawai‘i Department of Education has continued in existence until the present day (2010). The only U.S. state with a D.O.E. older than Hawai‘i is Massachusetts. Hawai‘i rises to become one of the most literate, if not the most literate, nations of the nineteenth century. (‘Aha Punanaleo, 2006)

• 1842 – Joseph Kaho‘oluhi Nawahi is born January 13. He becomes a well-known artist, legislator, and Queen Lili‘uokalani’s principal advisors during the last months of the monarchy.
• The United States recognizes the Kingdom of Hawai‘i on December 19.
• Punahou School, an English-language school for missionary children is established, to protect missionary (White) children from the influences associated with high fluency/literacy in Hawaiian developed in other schools. Hawai'i's unique sociopolitical realities result in the children of the Native Hawaiian elite also enrolling for an English language immersion experience at Punahou. Later the Hawaiian elite establish primarily British staffed private schools - now 'Iolani and St. Andrew's Priory – to promote what they consider a higher standard of English among Hawaiians. Race and class eventually divide Hawai‘i, based on the language of education. More English medium immersion-like education for those with higher class aspirations brings neglect of Hawaiian language medium schools. The long-term results are the loss of confidence among Hawai‘i's people in themselves, the weakening of academic strengths of Hawai‘i's population, and tension between descendants of the missionaries and the native Hawaiian community. (‘Aha Punanaleo, 2006)

1843 – Lord George Paulet, commanding the British frigate Carysfort, arrives on February 10 and demands provisional cession of Hawai‘i to Great Britain. On February 15 he orders the Hawaiian flag lowered with the British flag raised over Hawai‘i.
• Admiral Richard Thomas, commanding H.M.S. flagship Dublin, arrives on July 26. He rescinds the cession under Paulet and restores sovereignty to the Islands.
• Kamehameha II, in his restoration day speech, recites a phrase that becomes Hawaii's national motto: Ua mau ke ea o ka aina i ka pono ("The Life of the Land is Perpetuated in Righteousness"). England and France recognize the independence of the Sandwich Islands on November 28.

1844 – The weekly newspaper Polynesian, is reestablished in May and becomes the “Official Journal of the Hawaiian Government” on July 14; it runs until February 6, 1864.
• December 9 – Kuakini, 53, governor of Hawai‘i from 1820 to 1844, dies.

1845 – June 7 – Kekāuluohi, also known as Auhea, dies of influenza. Kamehameha I selected her as a repository of ancient genealogies, legends, songs, and proverbs. Her son, William Charles Lunalilo becomes king in 1873.

1846 – Whale ship visits to Hawai‘i peak with 596 arrivals. Of these, 429 ships anchor off Lahaina and the rest in Honolulu Harbor.

1848 – The land division known as The Great Mahele begins January 27 and continues through March 7, dividing Hawai‘i's lands among the king and chiefs.
• An epidemic of measles, whooping cough, and influenza takes the lives of about 10,000 people, mostly native Hawaiians.

1849 – Dr. G.P. Judd, Alexander Liholiho, and Lot Kamehameha depart September 11 on a tour of the United States and Europe on a mission to improve international relations.
• Commoners are given the right to claim lands.

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1825 - 1834 AD

1825 – The first sugar and coffee plantations are started in Mānoa Valley by John Wilkinson.
• George Anson, Lord Bryon, commanding the British Navy frigate Blonde, returns the bodies of Kamehameha II and Kamāmalu.
• Kauikeaouli, age eleven, is proclaimed king as Kamehameha III, under the regency of Queen Ka‘ahumanu. Ka‘ahumanu, widow of Kamehameha I and queen regent for Kamehameha II and Kamehameha III, is baptized December 4, along with her cousin Kalanimōkū, his infant son Leleiōhoku (a grandson of Kamehameha I), and her sister Pi‘ia.

1826 – Missionaries standardize the Hawaiian alphabet into its present form and order.
• The U.S. schooner Dolphin, the first American warship to visit Honolulu arrives.
• May 3 – George Humehume Kaumuali‘i dies. He left Hawai‘i as a youth and returned with the pioneer company of American missionaries in 1820.
• May 26 – Kahakuha‘akoi Wahinepio, widow of Kamehameha I and former governor of Maui dies.
• June 17 – Kalanipauahi, mother of Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani, dies in Honolulu in an epidemic.
• December 21 – Hawai‘i's first general tax law is enacted to provide revenue for shipbuilding and other development.

1827 – Kalanimoku, the prime minister under Kamehameha I, II, and III dies in Kailua, Kona.
• Catholic missionaries arrive in Hawai‘i aboard the ship Comet.
• The first Catholic mass of record in Hawai‘i is celebrated in Honolulu, and the first Catholic baptism in Hawai‘i takes place.
• A meeting is held December 14 marking the beginning of formal legislation in the kingdom of Hawai‘i. All chiefs are present and enact prohibitions against killing, committing adultery, and stealing.

By 1828 there are only 188,000 pure Hawaiians left alive (Noyes, 2003).

1829 – Boki (before 1785–after December 1829), governor of O‘ahu, departs December 2 on a sandalwood expedition to the South Pacific with two ships and nearly six hundred people. One ship returns nine months later, in August 1830 with only twelve natives and eight foreigners on board. More than four hundred men perished, including Boki.

1830 – Mexican and California cowboys arrive on the Big Island to teach Hawaiians the cattle business.
• December 11 – Lot Kamehameha, Kamehameha V, the son of Kekūanaō‘a and Kīna‘u is born.

Kamehameha V (1830–1872), born as Lot Kapuāiwa on December 11, 1830, reigned as monarch of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i from 1863 to 1872. His motto was "Onipa`a": immovable, firm, steadfast or determined; he worked diligently for his people and kingdom and was described as the last great traditional chief. His mother was Elizabeth Kīna‘u and father was Mataio Kekūanāo‘a. His siblings included David Kamehameha, Moses Kekuaiwa, Alexander Liholiho (Kamehameha IV), and Victoria Kamamalu. Lot was educated at the Royal School like his cousins and siblings. He was betrothed to Bernice Pauahi at birth but she eventually married Charles R. Bishop. Lot and Bernice remained friends for the rest of his life.

Lot was a public servant for many years before he became king, serving on the Privy Council, in the House of Nobles, as Minister of the Interior, and chief justice of the supreme court. His more charismatic younger brother Prince Alexander was chosen to become King Kamehameha IV in 1854; Lot succeeded him after his death in 1963.

Kamehameha V initiated ambitious public projects. He wanted to create a credible and pleasing face for the government for those who visited. The Kamehameha V Post Office was begun in 1871. Ali‘iōlani Hale (which is now the home of the Hawai‘i Supreme Court) was completed in 1874. Some other building projects included the ʻIolani barracks to house the royal guards, a new prison, the Royal Mausoleum, schools and warehouses, an insane asylum, a quarantine building to process the flood of immigrants, and other government structures. So many new projects caused a heavy strain on Hawaiʻi's resources; by March 31, 1874, Hawaiʻi's national debt stood at over $355,000.

Lot’s sister and only named Heir Apparent to the throne, Crown Princess Victoria Kamāmalu had died childless in 1866; through the remainder of his reign, Kamehameha V did not name a successor. He died on December 11, 1872 while the preparations for his birthday celebration were underway. As Lot laid bedstricken, he answered those that came to visit him: "The Good Lord cannot take me today, today is my birthday". He is buried in the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii known as Mauna ‘Ala.

Lot was the last ruling monarch of the House of Kamehameha. After his death, the legislature declared an election for the office, won by Kamehameha V's cousin William Charles Lunalilo.

1831 – December 19 – Bernice Pauahi is born.
• Lahainaluna is established as a teacher training college, and is the first college west of the Mississippi River. Subjects such as trigonometry, anatomy, world geography, Greek and English are taught there in Hawaiian.

1832 – February 9 – Alexander Liholiho (Kamehameha IV) is born.
• June 5 – Queen Ka‘ahumanu dies in her home in Mānoa; she was instrumental in the fall of the kapu (taboo) system and the adoption of the Christian religion.
• The first newspaper in the Hawaiian language, Ka Lama Hawai‘i, is run.

Kamehameha IV, born Alexander ʻIolani Liholiho Keawenui (1834–1863), reigned as the fourth king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from January 11, 1855 to November 30, 1863. Alexander was born on February 9, 1834 in Honolulu, to High Chief Mataio Kekūanāo‘a, Royal Governor of O‘ahu and Princess Elizabeth Kīna‘u, Kuhina Nui of the Kingdom. He was the grandson of Kamehameha I. As a baby, he was adopted by his uncle, King Kamehameha III who decreed Alexander Liholiho heir to the throne and raised him as the crown prince.

Educated at the Royal School, Liholiho was accompanied by 30 kahu (attendants) when he arrived, but they were sent home and for the first time, Liholiho was on his own. Liholiho played the flute and the piano, and enjoyed singing and acting. At 14 he went to law school, and at 15, he went on a government trip with his brother Lot and with his guardian Dr. Judd to England, the United States, and Panama. Alexander Liholiho recorded the events of his trip in a journal.

In May 1850, the royal brothers, Prince Albert of England and others boarded a ship in England and sailed to the United States of America. He experienced American racism firsthand when he was called a “nigger” and almost removed from his train car. The prince had preceded Dr. Judd and Prince Lot in occupying the compartment reserved for them for a return trip to New York and someone had questioned Alexander's right to be there. The 16 year-old prince wrote in his journal:

"I found he was the conductor, and took me for somebody's servant just because I had a darker skin than he. Confounded fool; the first time that I have ever received such treatment, not in England or France or anywhere else........In England an African can pay his fare and sit alongside Queen Victoria. The Americans talk and think a great deal about their liberty, and strangers often find that too many liberties are taken of their comfort just because his hosts are a free people."

At a dinner party in New York with friends of Judd, the princes were again exposed to a racist incident. Helen Kinau Wilder recalled:
In New York visiting friends, the butler was very averse to serving "blacks" as he called them, and revenged himself by putting bibs at their places. Their hostess was very angry when she found what a mean trick her servant had played on them.
Kamehameha III died on December 15, 1854. On January 11, 1855 Alexander took the oath as King Kamehameha IV, succeeding his uncle when he was only 20 years old.

Alexander married Emma Rooke in 1856. Queen Emma was the granddaughter of John Young, Kamehameha I's British royal advisor and companion. She also was Kamehameha's great grand niece.

The royal couple had their only child in May 1858, Prince Albert, who died at the age of four. Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma devoted much of their efforts to providing quality healthcare and education for their people, as they were concerned that diseases were decimating the native Hawaiian population. They built The Queen's Medical Center, one of the most technologically advanced medical centers in the world today.

Kamehameha IV, 29, dies of chronic asthma on November 30, 1863; 800 children and teachers walk in his funeral procession to say goodbye. Kamehameha IV is buried with his son at Mauna Ala on February 3, 1864. Queen Emma runs unsuccessfully against David Kalākaua to rule the Kingdom. (Holt, 1971).



1832 – December 31 – Kapi‘olani, future wife of King Kalākaua, is born in Hilo.
Queen Kapiʻolani (1834–1899) formally Esther Julia Kapiʻolani, was married to King David Kalākaua. Born December 31, 1834 in Hilo, she was the granddaughter of Kaumuali‘i, the last king of the island of Kaua‘i before the unification of the islands under Kamehameha I, and the stepdaughter of Queen Ka‘ahumanu. Her first marriage was to High Chief Benjamin Namakehaokalani, son of Keali‘imaika‘i, brother of Kamehameha I, and was 35 years older than Kapiʻolani. He was uncle of Queen Emma. This made Kapi‘olani the widowed aunt of Queen Emma. Kapiʻolani was the caretaker of Prince Albert, baby of Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma. Queen Emma blamed Kapi‘olani for the child's death as he was under Kapiolani's care at the time. After the death of her child, Queen Emma would never appear at a public function that Kapiolani was in attendance of.
Kapiʻolani and Kalākaua were married in a quiet ceremony due to respect for the passing of Kamehameha IV. They were childless. In 1887, Queen Kapiʻolani, King Kalākaua, and his sister Princess Lili‘uokalani traveled around the world, and to London to attend Queen Victoria's 50th Jubilee celebration. The Hawaiian Royal family were treated as dignitaries, and seated with the British Royal family. Kapiʻolani established the Kapiʻolani Medical Center, a maternity home where Hawaiian mothers and their newborns could receive care. Kalākaua named Kapiʻolani Park in Waikīkī after his Queen. Kapiʻolani composed a love song for her husband, Ka Ipo Lei Manu. Kalākaua died in San Francisco before he could hear the musical composition from his wife. After missionaries arrived in Hawaiʻi, between 1820 -1840, a law was passed requiring all Hawaiian people to have an English first name. Kapiʻolani was given the name Julia. In Hawaiian, Julia is "Kulia", and the beginning of her personal motto, Kulia I Ka Nu‘u which means “Strive for the Highest". After the death of her husband, Kapiʻolani retired to her home in Waikīkī, and died there June 24, 1899.

1834 – The first Hawaiian newspaper, Ka Lama Hawai‘i, is established and printed at Lahainaluna School. For over 100 years thereafter, Hawaiian language newspapers flourish in Hawai‘i and serve to record traditional Hawaiian literature, history, and culture. (‘Aha Punanaleo, 2006)

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1800 - 1824 AD

1803 – Captain William Shaler brings the first horses to Hawai‘i.

1809 – King Kaumuali‘i of Kaua‘i visits O‘ahu to meet Kamehameha I and arranges the cession of his island. A year later the Hawaiian Islands are unified under a single leader, Kamehameha the Great.

Kaumualiʻi (1778–May 26, 1824) was the last independent Ali‘i Aimoku (King of the islands) of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau before becoming a vassal of Kamehameha I of the unified Hawai‘i in 1810. He was the high chief of Kauaʻi, reigning from 1794 – 1810.
Kaumualiʻi was extraordinarily handsome and charming, the only son of Queen Kamakahelei, Aliʻi Aimoku of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau, and her husband, Aliʻi Kāʻeokūlani (1754–1794), regent of Maui and Moloka‘i. Kamakahelei and Kāʻeokūlani die in separate incidents in 1794; their titles and positions are passed onto their 16-year-old son Kaumualiʻi, who reigned under the regency of Chief Inamoʻo until he came of age. His first wife and queen was his half-sister Kawalu of ‘Oahu. His second wife was his niece Ka‘apuwai Kapua‘amoku, and his third wife was Queen Ka‘ahumanu (1768 – 1832), Kamehameha’s widow. (article from Coco Palms website, 2005)

1814 – Kauikeaouli (Kamehameha III) is born at Keauhou, Kona.
• Henry ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia, a Hawaiian living in New England, writes his own spelling book, grammar, and dictionary in Hawaiian, at a time when Hawaiian was an unwritten language. ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia had become a Christian, studied Hebrew and Latin, and began translating Bible into Hawaiian. He invites missionaries to travel back with him to Hawai‘i. He dies and his books are lost before missionaries leave for Hawai‘i in 1819. (‘Aha Punanaleo, 2006)

1818 – Protestant missionaries to come to the Sandwich Islands.

1819 – May 8 – Kamehameha I dies; May 20, his son Liholiho is proclaimed Kamehameha II. Kamehameha II and his advisors order the destruction of heiau (Hawaiian temples) and an end to the kapu (taboo) system, thus overthrowing the foundation of traditional Hawaiian religion.
• The first whale ships (from New England) arrive in Hawaiian waters.

1820 – A pioneer company of American missionaries arrives from Boston. Among them are the first foreign women to settle in the Islands.

1821 – Honolulu's first Christian house of worship is built and dedicated at the location of the present Kawaiaha‘o Church.

1822 – The first Hawaiian language lesson, The Alphabet, is printed on the Mission Press. The writing system is similar to that already used by missionaries in Tahiti.
• January 25 – Charles Reed Bishop, future husband of Princess Bernice Pauahi, is born in Glens Falls, New York.
• King Liholiho sends out Hawaiians to teach the new skill of reading into the country districts. Teachers such as Kaomimoe, establish schools based on the model of the traditional Hawaiian hālau hula (hula schools) and Hawaiian traditions of teaching reading and writing through hakalama (chanted syllables) develop. (‘Aha Punanaleo, 2006)

1823 – Keōpūolani, the queen mother, receives a Christian baptism on her deathbed; she is the first Hawaiian in Hawai‘i to be baptized in the Protestant faith.
• On November 27th, Kamehameha II and Queen Kamāmalu sail for England aboard the English whale ship L'Aigle. Less than eight months later (July 8), Queen Kamāmalu dies in London, followed by Kamehameha II on July 14.

1824 – March 22 – Ke‘eaumoku II dies in Honolulu. He served as governor of Maui and governor of Kaua‘i at different times.
• May 26 – Kaumuali‘i, Ali’i Nui of Kaua’i since 1794 dies.
• High Chiefess Queen Kapi‘olani visits Kilauea and defies the goddess Pele by descending into the crater.

Timeline in Hawaiian History...1758? - 1800 AD

Important Dates in Hawaiian History

This section was written for several reasons. First of all, I was interested in learning about Hawaiian historical events in context by reading about what happened in Hawaii regionally, and within the context of the global picture. Researching historical events gave me the insight to create timeline for future reference so that I could understand the progression of the Hawaiian revitalization movement, which demonstrates the significance of Tūtū Puku‘i’s work.

The timeline is laid out chronologically to show progression. Facts and dates were gathered and verified from various sources including a Timeline of Revitalization from the ‘Aha Pūnana Leo website (http://www.ahapunanaleo.org), a timeline from a documentary film by Elizabeth Kapu‘uwailani Lindsey Byers, Ph.D., entitled Then There Were None, Kuykendall and Day’s (1961) book Hawaii a history: From Polynesian Kingdom to American Statehood, and the Hawaiian Historical Society website (http://www.Hawaiianhistory.org/ref/chron.html).

It was important to gather information from several sources to verify facts, and also to gain a well-rounded perspective by hearing the same stories from different viewpoints. The timeline begins with the birth of Kamehameha the first, and ends with Tūtū Puku‘i’s death.

Timeline

King Kamehameha I, also known as Kamehameha the Great (1758? – 1819). No one knows for sure when Kamehameha was born, and there is debate as to the precise year of his birth. Hawaiian legends claimed that a great king would one day unite the islands, and that the sign of his birth would be a comet. Halley’s comet was visible from Hawai‘i in 1758, and it is believed that Kamehameha was born in Pu‘ukoholā shortly after the comet appeared. Most references site that he was born in 1758, while other accounts state that he was born in November of 1737.

Kamehameha was born in secret and he was buried in secret; he lived a life of action, courage, wisdom and justice (Ulukau, 2010). Kamehameha is remembered for uniting the separate Hawaiian Islands into one great nation, and under his leadership, the Hawaiian people lived peaceful, productive, and prosperous lives.

1778 – Captains James Cook and George Vancouver sail their ships Discovery and Resolution into Kealakekua Bay on the Big Island of Hawai’i during the annual season of the Makahiki, a festival honoring the god Lono as Lono-i-ka-Makahiki who sailed away long ago and promised to return. Imagine viewing the ships’ enormous white sails for the first time, huge billowing sheets of white which resemble the white kapa banners of Lono; think about the fortuitous timing of Cook’s arrival during the Makahiki season, when emotions and spiritual awareness are heightened, and with the back ground knowledge that Kealakekua (Bay, where Cook landed) means “The pathway of god”…all of these reasons caused the Hawaiians to believe that Captain Cook was Lono who has finally returned.

Cook, Vancouver, and their crews are treated like gods, like the parents of royalty. They are given gifts, feasts are held in their honor, and the Hawaiian hosts offer their guests the very best of everything. This outpouring of hospitality is both exhausting and draining. When the Makahiki celebration comes to an end, the visitors remain… and outstay their welcome.

Eventually, an argument escalates over unfair trade and the accusation of thievery. “About a score of natives were killed in the fray” (Kuykendall and Day, 1961, p.19); Cook and four of his marines are tragically killed ashore. The bones of Captain Cook are divided among the high chiefs because they are perceived to have mana (spiritual power). “Many natives were killed and a number of houses were burned during the week that followed. Finally peace was restored (p. 19), and most of Captain Cook’s remains were returned…” But what happened after that? Some accounts say that his bones were buried in the bay, while others indicate that Captain Vancouver took his remains back to England. In any case, according to Kuykendall and Day, authors of Hawai’i a History (1961), “On March 15, 1979, the expedition left for the north to continue its explorations on the coast of America and Asia, and did not return to the Sandwich Isles” (p. 19).

In 1778 there are an estimated 400,000 to 1,000,000 Hawaiians living in these islands. By 1822 there were only 200,000 pure Hawaiians left alive (Byers, 2003).

1782 – Kamehameha I begins his campaign to unify the islands.

1793 – Captain Vancouver’s ship brings Hawai‘i’s first cattle – five cows, two with calf to Kealakekua Bay.

1795 – Kamehameha I conquers Maui, Lana‘i, Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu, in the battle of Nu‘uanu. 1796 – Kamehameha I fails in his attempt to invade Kaua‘i.

1797 – Kamehameha II (1797 – 1824) is born.

Liholiho - Kamehameha II (1797–July 14, 1824) was the second king of Hawai‘i, sharing the throne upon Kamehameha I's death in May 1819 with Queen Ka’ahumanu as the first Kuhina Nui (co-regent). Kamehameha II is best remembered for the ‘Ai Noa, the breaking of the ancient kapu (taboo) system of religious laws when he sat down with Kaʻahumanu and his mother Keopuolani and ate a meal together. What followed was the destruction of the heiau (temples) and images.

Liholiho never officially converted to Christianity because he refused to give up four of his five wives and his love of alcohol. He (like his father) married several relatives of high rank, and he was the last Hawaiian king to practice polygamy. His favorite wife was his half-sister Victoria Kamāmalu. In November

1823 Kamehameha II and Queen Kamāmalu commissioned the British whaling ship L'Aigle to carry them to London. While in England, the royal family contracted the measles, to which they had no immunity. Queen Kamāmalu died on July 8, 1824. Grief-stricken, Kamehameha II died six days later on July 14, 1824. (Williams, J.S. & Tune, S.C., 2001)

Timeline in Hawaiian History...

The Hawaiian Islands lie in the eastern half of the North Pacific (Kykendall & Day, 1948 p.3), more than 2,400 miles from the closest continental land mass, it is one of the last spots on the globe to be populated (Barnes, 1999). Hawai‘i consists of eight major islands: Hawai’i, Maui, ‘Oahu, Kaua’i, Moloka’i, Lana’i, Ni’ihau, and Kaho’olawe.

Nobody knows for sure exactly where the first Hawaiians came from or exactly dates of arrival were. The Hawaiians embraced an oral tradition that preserved their stories through chants and dance, legends of creation, mythology, genealogy, and stories of travel from far away lands that were passed down for centuries, from generation to generation. Time was not measured by the Christian calendar because the first protestant missionaries did not arrive until the early 1800s.

Anthropologists study the bones of the earliest settlers to determine where they had migrated from, and have determined that, although the bone structures differ slightly, scientific examination of skulls reveal that the ancient Hawaiians were a mixed race, predominantly Caucasoid, some Mongoloid, with traces of Negroid ancestry. In researching, I have found slightly differing stories about the origins of the very first people to arrive in Hawai’i.

The ancestors of the Polynesian people are held by most scientists to been a Caucasian offshoot which worked east from south of the Himalayas and reached the islands of Malay Archipelago collectively known as Indonesia…there they came in contact with the Mongoloid ancestors of the Malays…a certain amount of intermixture took place, followed by a conflict which resulted in the push east into the Pacific of the mixed Caucasian-Mongoloid people. This mixed people, largely Caucasian and to a lesser degree Mongoloid, formed what are termed the Polynesians. (As sited in Barnes, 1999, p. 19)

The dominant theory is that the people are from Polynesia, the region within a geographic triangle that connects New Zealand, Easter Island, and the northern point of Hawai‘i (Barnes, 1999; Emory, 1999) and that they arrived in small groups sometime around 500 – 750 AD searching for food and a new place to settle (Dunford, 1980, p. 21).

They migrated from Asia to the Southeast Asian Peninsula and then continued across the sea into Indonesia. From there they followed an easterly route across Melanesia and Micronesia to the vicinity of Fiji. From this juncture one strand headed south to New Zealand. Another headed north, through the Society Islands, to the Marquesas, and then on to Hawai‘i. (Barnes, 1999 p. 8)

Later, many other people came from Tahiti and other nearby islands over a thousand years ago (Dunford, 1980). These people came to be known as Hawaiians. “They traveled back and forth to Tahiti for a few hundred years, and then those trips stopped. The people of Hawai‘i did not see people from other lands for many, many years” (p. 22).

The Hawaiians were expert sailors, skillfully navigating their double hulled canoes by the stars. Their voyages were planned with care; taro, sweet potato, yam, coconut, bananas to plant were brought for food, ‘ōlena (turmeric) and noni (Indian mulberry) for medicine and dye; on later voyages they brought more people on larger canoes, and land animals such as pigs, chicken and dogs, to be raised for food (p. 25 – 27).

Relax and trust that your higher spirit(s) will guide you

For the last couple of days since I made my commitment to be writing 1500 words a day, I have been on a roll, extremely focused. I'd go to bed very late trying to get those last words in and not actually wanting to go to bed! And then when morning comes, I'd jump out of bed like a little kid on Christmas, ready to start my day. This personal mania continues for a several days in a row, but on this particular morning my brain feels heavy. I feel physically exhausted and a little grumpy, and I have to give a workshop on goal-setting this afternoon that I wish I had better prepared for.

I have been praying for clarity, guidance, and for the right words to come to me. When the words come easily and the editing process is much simpler, writing is so much fun, actually quite enjoyable. Other times I struggle to find precisely the right descriptor, or verb or adjective. Writing is a humbling experience. Especially in the beginning. You put yourself out there for criticism, do your best work and try to make tight deadlines...there are high self-expectations, a some self-doubt, and a bit of stress. You ask yourself, "Am I going to make it?" and decide to go for it anyway. You feel vulnerable, awkward and clumsy; the feeling reminds me of how I used to feel as a teenager, running with an armful of books trying to catch the school bus as it begins to pull away from the curb...you ask yourself, "Am I going to make it?" and decide to go for it anyway. Sooner or later you will arrive at your destination, but it may take longer than you expected, and it's likely you might trip at some point along the way.

There are good days and then not so good days. FLOW is what we strive for…and when it comes, it feels sooo darn good. The rewards are sweet – pages of lovely work that can be inserted seamlessly, perfectly fitting in the right spot of your essay. I have come to know that the best way for me to start a writing session is to meditate first, breathe in deeply and exhale…breathe in deeply a second time and exhale slowly, creating a warmth and relaxing each part of my body... paying special attention to the neck and shoulders, then moving down through arms and fingers, chest, belly, hips, legs, calves and toes… breathe in deeply a third time and exhale, breathing out any residual thoughts and clearing my mind. Now I am relaxed completely, an empty vessel, ready to receive whatever higher thoughts and messages that come from my ‘aumakua.

The relationship between mahina, mahi'ai, and lawai'a

A’o Makua: Mālama ‘Āina

The Mālama ‘Āina classes offered through the A‘o Makua series serve to increase awareness as well as to educate students on the intelligent ways of the people of old – our kupuna (ancestors). The learning is fundamental to both understanding Hawaiian epistemology and to the applicability of mālama ‘āina in our own lives. The papa (class) was divided into three areas of study that exemplified the caring relationship between kanaka (people) and ‘āina (land), and the interconnectedness between Mahina (moon), Mahi’ai (native planting and farming) and Lawai’a (fishing).

Kamali'i 'ike 'ole i ka helu po, Muku nei, Mulu ka malama, Hilo nei, kau ke Hoaka.
Children who do not know the moon phases: Muku is here, Muku the moon; Hilo comes next then Hoaka.

This is the first part of the chant for children to learn the phases of the moon; also said of one who does not know the answer to a question, or is ignorant. He is compared to a small child who has not learned the moon phases.
Puku’i, 1471

Through A’o Makua: Mālama ‘Āina we learn that the Ancient Hawaiians were so attune with nature and the concept of sustainability and reciprocity between kanaka and ‘āina. The Kanaka Maoli made thoughtful, intelligent decisions based upon ancient wisdom – secrets of indigenous culture that were passed on from generation to generation, from kupuna to keiki. These secrets were almost lost forever when pineapple and sugar cane were introduced to the islands as “cash crops”, and the kingdom of Hawai‘i was tragically taken over by a foreign government in the late 1800s.

For thousands of years prior to that period in Hawaiian history, each person existed within the collective mindset of aloha ‘āina; they shared the responsibility for taking care of the ‘āina and passing the knowledge to their keiki (children) at an early age. In this way the people were not only able to sustain themselves with food water, clothing and shelter – they were able to prosper, and for most of the time, live in peace and abundance in paradise. Imagine that?!

The moon cycle was especially important in ancient culture. In fact, by observing the moon in the sky, each person knew exactly what kind of work they would be doing on their ‘ahupua’a, on that particular day. The waxing moon (increasing light between new and full moon) dictated planting plants that produce the edible part above ground, and the waning moon (decreasing light - full moon to new moon) dictated planting plants that produce the edible parts below ground (Aiwohi, 2009). In A’o Makua: Mālama ‘Āina, our instructor Lory Aiwohi introduced us to the moon calendar by sending daily messages based upon the moon calendar:

On this day, May 14, 2010, the phase of the moon is at Kū kahi Ka'aona. If you are a fisherman, or lawai‘a, good fishing. In addition if you’re a farmer or mahi‘ai, plant 'uala, kalo and mai'a (sweet potato, taro and banana).

The Big Island of Hawai’i is a sacred place; most of the land is typically much more rural than on ‘Oahu, and local people commonly engage in practices of old. Here is an excerpt from Big Island Weekly, where phases of the moon were blogged in both English and Hawaiian:


fifth night 9/24/09 - It is easy to remember the four nights of Kū because they are shaped like the horns of a cow.
Lawai’a (fishing): In the summer the fish are plentiful. Fish with a fishing pole or from a vessel near the reef in the morning. Gather wana (sea urchin) limu (sea weed) and papa'i (crab). The wind will blow until the evening of 'Ole Kū Kahi.(one of the phases of the moon). The ocean is inactive or dead.
Mahi’ai (Farming): It is not recommended to plant 'uala, mai'a (banana) and 'ipu (gourds)

It was customary for children to learn about the phases of the moon by reciting a mahina 'oli (moon chant) before the age of six (Handy & Puku’i, 1972). Tūtū Mary Kawena Puku’i wrote a chant about the moon to teach little children the phases of the moon called Po Mahina. The words are below: Check out the video of some kids chanting Po Mahina: http://www.bigislandweekly.com/articles/2009/09/23/read/news/news05.txt

Kamali'i 'ike 'ole i na helu po,
All you children, who do not know the phases of the moon

Muku nei, Muku ka malama,
Here is Muku, Muku the moon

Hilo nei, kau ka Hoaka,
Here is Hilo, Hoaka appears

'Eha Ku, 'Eha 'Ole,
There are four Ku, four 'Ole

Huna, Mohalu, Hua, Akua
Then Huna, Mohalu, Hua, Akua

Hoku, Mahealni, Kulu
Then Hoku, Mahealani, Kulu

'Ekolu La'au, 'Ekolu 'Ole
There are three La'au, three 'Ole

'Ekolu Kaloa
There are three Kaloa

Kane, Lono, Mauli, Muku.
Then Kane, Lono, Mauli, and Muku.

The A’o Makua classes teach us that Mālama ‘āina is much more than an indigenous, green way of living. It is up to each of us to live consciously, to take responsibility for our actions, and to aloha ‘āina with every breath that we take.

We can do this by:
1. Appreciating the beauty and bounty of our ‘āina.
2. Giving thanks for what the earth generously gifts to us: the sunshine and rain, clean air and fresh water, plants and trees that provide us with delicious, nutritious food, shelter and clothing, and the ocean, which is an open source of food, fun and recreation.
3. Creating an intimate, loving and caring relationship with the ‘āina that takes care of us, and teaching our children to do the same.
4. Increasing our awareness by continually learning about the natural order of the earth and universe, which includes learning the phases of the moon and the proper times to plant, harvest and fish, putting our knowledge to practical use, and teaching our ‘ohana what we have learned.
5. Taking action to live consciously and act responsibly by caring for her resources, which may include being energy efficient at all costs, growing our own food and/or buying organic fruits and vegetables locally, eliminating unnecessary waste, and working to restore the delicate ecosystems of nature within which we exist.

1500 words a day to advance to candidacy...

I am back in writing mode and have been writing all day. It feels good, except that I haven’t exercised all day and am starting to feel a bit of social anxiety. I was supposed to go to a dinner tonight - sort of a reunion of colleagues, but finishing this paper is really #1 priority since advancing to candidacy in November is my top goal of 2010. This means that all my papers have to be turned in, edited, approved and have been assigned credit so that I become a doctoral candidate and begin dissertation work. Financially, it means that my tuition gets cut in half - from $5,500 per quarter to $2,250. Accomplishing this goal will save me a minimum of $5,500.

I thought of a way that I can reach my goal and get all seven papers done within the 6 1/2 week time frame...by writing 1500 words and posting them on my blog every day for the next 21 days starting today. Then I will post another 1500 words every day in November for the following 19 days until Dave and I go to Reno for Ikaika’s Bar Mitzvah. That’s a total of 40 days. If I need more time, I can take Nov 22, 23 & 24; I’ll take Thanksgiving off, and if I need additional days, I’ll write on the 26th , 27th , 28th , 29th and 30th …that’s an additional 8 days before December 1st. This means writing every day without fail. I know that if I blog daily and write the minimum of 1500 words, I can advance to candidacy in November. This is going to take severe discipline. It took me all day to write on my day off, and I barely got 1500 words in – that includes this journal and the two sections I did on Malama ‘Aina. Well, I can only become a better writer by writing more often. Tonight I am going to write a little while longer, and start my blog for tomorrow’s 1500 words.

Class system and Land Management in Ancient Hawai'i

In the ancient Hawaiian social system, there were several major classes of people: the ali’i who were the ruling class, chiefs and warriors, the kahuna, which included priests, sorcerers, healers, and navigators, the maka‘āinana or working people, and the kauwā, also known as outcasts or slaves (Handy & Puku’i, 1972; Kuykendall & Day, 1961; Dunford, 1980).

In terms of land management, an ali’i ‘ai moku was the head of the moku, a major part of an island, if not the leader of a whole island. It was believed that the gods had given him divine birth right and the power to rule. Not unlike today, the people preferred a ruler that was a great warrior and leader, one who prayed to his gods, and was kind, fair and just (Dunford, 1980). A konohiki was sort of a lesser chief, a supervisor who had the important job of taking care of the land for higher chiefs. He was in charge of managing labor resources that involved planting, growing and harvesting, as well as making sure taxes were paid and the fishing kapu (rules) were kept (Dunford, 1980; Handy & Puku’i 1972).

Most of the population were maka‘āinana, people who lived on and attended to the land; they worked as farmers, fishermen, and people who were skilled in the crafts (Dunford, 1980, p. 31). Through my language class, when I break apart the word maka‘āinana, I found it interesting that it translates literally as maka (eyes) and āina (land)…or maka (eyes) ‘āi (that eat) nana (a variety of taro).

The Hawaiians believed that all the land belonged to the gods, and the highest chiefs were direct descendants of the gods, and therefore had the right to rule (Aiwohi, 2010). After a death of a high chief(ess) or after a war, the ruling chiefs often changed with a new high chief, but the maka‘āinana remained and worked on the land. If they did not like their new chief, they were free to move. If they did not like where they lived, they could move. The maka‘āinana and the ‘ali’i had a reciprocal relationship: the maka‘āinana worked for the ‘ali’i and the ‘ali’i were responsible for taking care of and protecting their people (Dunford, 1980, p. 41).

The āina in ancient Hawaii was divided into sections. The island or large land divisions known as moku were divided into sections called ahupua’a, like slices of a pie that ran from makua – inland, the mountains, to makai – the sea. An ‘ohana (family) lived on a further sub-divisions called ‘ili; there were many ‘ili in every ahupua’a. In this manner the ahupua’a gave the people everything they needed: fishing near the shoreline, land for growing taro, sweet potatoes and bananas, and wood, flowers, fern and feathers from the birds could be gathered in the mountains.

Anyone could use whatever was in their ahupua’a, and waste was never an issue because the ancient Hawaiians understood the concept of malama 'aina - taking care of scarce and precious resources. If the people needed something that they could not get in their own area, people in another ahupua’a would share what they had.

The only thing that the people could not take freely was the wai (fresh water). There were many kapu (rules) around water, and for good reason (p.42). Water was important for drinking, bathing, and most importantly, the taro patches.

As was aforementioned in the story of Hāloa, kalo is central and deeply rooted to concept of mālama ‘āina in the ancient Hawaiian culture and was not just the staple of the Hawaiian diet; its significance in abundance meant healthy families – physically, mentally and spiritually – as well as strong island communities. (ILA - A, essay #1 pg 16 - 18).